Corrections

A correction is issued when an error affects interpretation, attribution, metadata, or part of the record but does not invalidate the central findings.

Expressions of concern

An expression of concern may be issued when a serious concern is supported but an investigation remains incomplete or inconclusive.

Retractions

Retraction may be appropriate for unreliable findings, fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, duplicate publication, unethical research, manipulated review, or another serious breach. The notice states the reason and responsible parties where established, remains freely accessible, and is linked to the original article.

Process

Authors and relevant institutions may be invited to respond. Decisions are based on available evidence and recognised publication-ethics guidance. The record is not silently removed except where exceptional legal or safety grounds require restricted access.